Medically reviewed by C. Fookes, BPharm. Last updated on Feb 5, 2019.
- What Type Of Dmg Is Considered Fallout 4
- What Type Of Dmg Is Considered Fallen
- What Type Of Dmg Is Considered Falling
For example, say a DMG file isn't just storing compressed files like images and videos but is instead holding a software program. You can extract/open the DMG file in Windows using one of the programs mentioned below, but you can't actually execute the program and use it like you would another Windows application. Fall Arrest Systems Used in Construction Work A device that permits an arrested fall is considered a fall arrest system. In construction work a body harness must be used in these systems. A fall arrest system can only be used where the aerial lift or scaffold is designed to withstand the vertical and lateral loads caused by an arrested fall.
What are Benzodiazepines?
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Benzodiazepines (also called “benzos”) are a class of agents that work in the central nervous system and are used for a variety of medical conditions.
They act on specific receptors in the brain, called gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA-A) receptors. Benzodiazepines attach to these receptors and make the nerves in the brain less sensitive to stimulation, which has a calming effect.
What are benzodiazepines used for?
Benzodiazepines may be used to treat:
- as a muscle relaxant
- to induce relaxation and cause amnesia prior to surgical operations.
What are the differences between benzodiazepines?
All benzodiazepines work in a similar way but there are differences in the way individual benzodiazepines act on different GABA-A receptor sub-types. In addition, some benzodiazepines are more potent than others or work for a longer length of time. The table below summarizes the common benzodiazepines available in the U.S.
Common Benzodiazepines Available in the U.S.
| Generic Name | Brand Name | Common Uses | Half-life* |
|---|---|---|---|
| * The half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the drug to be eliminated from the body. The shorter the half-life, the quicker the drug is eliminated. All benzodiazepines are listed as DEA scheduled IV controlled substances. As controlled substances, all benzodiazepines have the potential for abuse, addiction and diversion. | |||
| alprazolam | Niravam, Xanax, Xanax XR | anxiety, panic disorders | 6-26h (short-acting) |
| chlordiazepoxide | Librax | anxiety, alcohol withdrawal | 30-100h (long-acting) |
| clobazam | Onfi | Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, adjunct (seizures) | 71-82h (long-acting) |
| clonazepam | Klonopin | seizure disorder, panic disorder, neuralgia (nerve pain) | 20-50h (long-acting) |
| clorazepate | Tranxene T-Tab | anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, partial seizures | 20-100h (long-acting) |
| diazepam | Valium | anxiety, sedation, alcohol withdrawal, muscle spasm, seizure disorders | 20-100h (long-acting) |
| estazolam | ProSom | insomnia (short-term use) | 10-24h (medium-acting) |
| flurazepam | Dalmane | insomnia (short-term use) | 40-100h (long-acting) |
| lorazepam | Ativan | anxiety, insomnia (short-term use), seizures, sedation | 10-20h (medium-acting) |
| midazolam | Versed | sedation, preoperative; general anesthesia induction; seizures | 2.5h (short-acting) |
| oxazepam | Serax | anxiety, alcohol withdrawal | 5-15h (short-acting) |
| temazepam | Restoril | insomnia (short-term use) | 10-20h (medium-acting) |
| triazolam | Halcion | insomnia (short-term use) | 2-5h (short-acting) |
Are benzodiazepines safe?
When prescribed by a doctor and used for short periods of time, such as the day of surgery or for less than two weeks to aid sleep, benzodiazepines are safe to take.
Problems start to arise when benzodiazepines are taken at higher dosages than recommended, or when they are taken for more than two to four weeks. Benzodiazepines are potentially addictive and the risk of becoming emotionally and physically dependent on them increases the more you take. In addition, tolerance can develop with their use. This is when the same dose no longer gives the same effect, and a dosage increase is needed to ease symptoms again.
Benzodiazepines should only be taken at the lowest dose for the shortest possible length of time.
What are the side effects of benzodiazepines?
Drowsiness, sleepiness, or dizziness are the most common side effects reported. This can make it dangerous for people taking benzodiazepines to drive or operate machinery or perform other hazardous tasks. Alcohol may potentiate these effects.
Other commonly reported side effects include:
- amnesia (forgetfulness)
- confusion
- sexual dysfunction
- unsteadiness when walking or standing
- unusually slow and shallow breathing
- vision problems (blurred or double vision).
Withdrawal symptoms may occur with abrupt discontinuation – symptoms may include convulsions, cramps, insomnia, sweating, tremors, and vomiting.
Some people develop a paradoxical reaction to benzodiazepines – this is the opposite reaction to what you would expect. They may become agitated or very anxious, develop hallucinations, have difficulty sleeping or exhibit bizarre behavior such as taking off their clothes in public or taking unnecessary risks.
For more about benzodiazepines see Benzodiazepines: Overview and Use.
List of Benzodiazepines:
| Drug Name | Reviews | Avg. Ratings | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zetran Generic name:diazepam | 1 review | 10 | |
| Doral(Pro) Generic name:quazepam | 6 reviews | 9.7 | |
| Prosom(Pro) Generic name:estazolam | 2 reviews | 9.7 | |
| Niravam(Pro) Generic name:alprazolam | 13 reviews | 9.5 | |
| Alprazolam Intensol(Pro) Generic name:alprazolam | 12 reviews | 9.4 | |
| Diazepam Intensol Generic name:diazepam | 8 reviews | 9.4 | |
| Tranxene Generic name:clorazepate | 15 reviews | 9.3 | |
| Klonopin Wafer Generic name:clonazepam | 19 reviews | 8.9 | |
| Serax Generic name:oxazepam | 12 reviews | 8.9 | |
| Xanax XR(Pro) Generic name:alprazolam | 74 reviews | 8.9 | |
| Librium(Pro) Generic name:chlordiazepoxide | 159 reviews | 8.8 | |
| Xanax(Pro) Generic name:alprazolam | 822 reviews | 8.8 | |
| Lorazepam Intensol(Pro) Generic name:lorazepam | 13 reviews | 8.7 | |
| Valium(Pro) Generic name:diazepam | 282 reviews | 8.6 | |
| Klonopin(Pro) Generic name:clonazepam | 680 reviews | 8.5 | |
| Dalmane Generic name:flurazepam | 17 reviews | 8.4 | |
| Halcion(Pro) Generic name:triazolam | 28 reviews | 8.1 | |
| Ativan(Pro) Generic name:lorazepam | 418 reviews | 8.0 | |
| Tranxene T-Tab(Pro) Generic name:clorazepate | 1 review | 7.8 | |
| Restoril(Pro) Generic name:temazepam | 92 reviews | 7.2 | |
| Tranxene SD Generic name:clorazepate | 2 reviews | 7.0 | |
| Versed Generic name:midazolam | 56 reviews | 4.9 | |
| Byfavo Generic name: remimazolam | 0 reviews | Add rating | |
| Nayzilam(Pro) Generic name:midazolam | 0 reviews | Add rating | |
| Seizalam Generic name:midazolam | 0 reviews | Add rating | |
| For ratings, users were asked how effective they found the medicine while considering positive/adverse effects and ease of use (1 = not effective, 10 = most effective). | |||
Further information
Always consult your healthcare provider to ensure the information displayed on this page applies to your personal circumstances.
See Also
Medical conditions associated with benzodiazepines:
Jonathan Levin, http://newosxbook.com/ - 6/12/13
1. About
As part of writing HFSleuth, a 'bonus' tool for my book, I decided to implement DMG (disk image support). I realized, however, that the DMG file format (being Apple proprietary) was woefully undocumented. I briefly mention DMGs (pages 589-590), but due to the page constraints of an already large book, I had failed to delve into their format sufficiently. This article, therefore, is an attempt to rectify that shortcoming. The DMG file format has been painstakingly reverse-engineered by several
[1,2], and this article/addendum aims to consolidate their hard work into a single document. HFSleuth can operate fully on all known DMG types (to date), and can serve as a complementary tool to Apple's hdiutil(1), or - as it is POSIX portable - even as a replacement for it, on non OS X systems. When set to verbose mode, HFSleuth also provides step by step information as it processes DMGs, and is used in the examples below.2. The Disk Image file format
The first noteable fact about the DMG file format is, that there is no DMG file format. DMGs come in a variety of sub-formats, corresponding to the different tools which create them, and their compression schemes. The common denominator of most of these is the existence of a 512-byte trailer at the end of the file. This trailer is identifiable by a magic 32-bit value, 0x6B6F6C79, which is 'koly' in ASCII. As other references to this trailer call it the 'koly' block, we can do the same. Note, that 'most' is not 'all': images created with hdiutil(1), for example, can simply be raw dd(1)-like images of the disk layout, with no metadata. In those cases, however, there is nothing special or noteworthy about the file, which can be read as any disk would, by its partition table (commonly APM, or GPT). Images created with the DiscRecording.Framework contain the koly block. The koly block, when present, is formatted according to the following:The most important elements in the koly block are the fields pointing to the XML plist: This property list, embedded elsewhere in the DMG, contains the DMG block map table. Commonly, the plist is placed in the blocks leading up to the koly block, which fits the simple algorithm to create a DMG: First compress the image blocks, then place the XML plist, and finalize with the koly block. This is shown in figure 1: Using HFSleuth in verbose mode on a DMG will dump the KOLY header, as shown in the following output:
This method of creating DMGs also explains why commands such as 'file' have a hard time identifying the DMG file type: In the absence of a fixed header, a DMG can start with any type of data (disk or partition headers), which can be further compressed by myriad means. DMG files compressed with BZlib, for example, start with a BZ2 header. They cannot be opened with bunzip2, however, since compression methods are intermingled, and bunzip2 will discard blocks which do not start with a bz2 header. DMGs compressed with zlib often incorrectly appear as 'VAX COFF', due to the zlib header. The XML Property list (which is uncompressed and easily viewable by seeking to the DOCTYPE declaration using more(1) or using tail(1)) is technically the resource fork of the DMG. The property list file contains, at a minimum, a 'blkx' key, though it may contain other key/values, most commonly 'plst', and sometimes a service level agreement (SLA) which will be displayed by the OS (specifically, /System/Library/PrivateFrameworks/DiskImages.framework/Versions/A/Resources/DiskImages UI Agent.app/Contents/MacOS/DiskImages UI Agent) as a pre-requisite to attaching the DMG*. Due to XML parser restrictions, data in the property list is 7-bit. This forces all binary (8-bit) data to be encoded using Base-64 encoding (a wiser choice would have been using CDATA blocks). The output of such a property list is shown below: A detailed discussion of both APM and GPT can be found in chapter 15 of the book[3], as well as Apple's notes on APM[4] and GPT[5]. What makes the blxx data useful, however, is that it allows an implementation to
skip past the partition table data, and isolate the partition of interest directly from the DMG. The 'data' in the blxx header is a structure, which (like its sibling, koly) is also identifiable by a fixed signature - in this case 'mish'. In Base-64 this encodes as 'bWlza', which is readily evident in the previous listing. The mish block is formatted like this:In other words, for each entry, the chunk of SectorCount sectors, starting at SectorNumber are stored at CompressedLength bytes, at offset CompressedOffset in the data fork. When expanded, each such chunk will take SectorCount * SECTOR_SIZE bytes. Each chunk of blocks in a given entry is stored using the same compression, but different entries can contain different compression methods. What Type Of Dmg Is Considered Fallout 4
3. Mounting DMGs
DMGs can be mounted, just like any other file system, though technically this is what is known as a 'loopback' mount (i.e. a mount backed by a local file, rather than a device file). To mount a DMG, the system uses the DiskImages kernel extension (KExt), also known as the IOHDIXController.kext. This is clearly visible in both OS X and iOS, using kextstat (or jkextstat, in the latter):The kext is provided with a number of 'PlugIn' kexts, namely:- AppleDiskImagesCryptoEncoding.kext
- AppleDiskImagesKernelBacked.kext
- AppleDiskImagesReadWriteDiskImage.kext - for UDRO/UDRW
- AppleDiskImagesFileBackingStore.kext
- AppleDiskImagesPartitionBackingStore.kext - Uses the Apple GUID 444D4700-0000-11AA-AA11-00306543ECAC
- AppleDiskImagesSparseDiskImage.kext - for UDSP
- AppleDiskImagesHTTPBackingStore.kext - Allows DMGs to reside on a remote HTTP server. Uses a 'KDISocket' with HTTP/1.1 partial GETs (206) to get the chunks it needs from a DMG
- AppleDiskImagesRAMBackingStore.kext
- AppleDiskImagesUDIFDiskImage.kext
- hdik-unique-identifier - A UUID created by the caller (e.g. CFUUIDCreate())
- image-path - the path to the DMG in question
Some types of disk images (sparse, uncompressed, and z-Lib compressed) are natively supported by the kernel and can be mounted directly by it. A good example is the DeveloperDiskImage.dmg found in the iOS SDK. More often than not, however, mounting resorts to user-mode helper processes. This, in fact, is default on OS X (q.v. hdiutil -nokernel vs. hdiutil -kernel). When attaching a DMG, the DiskImages private framework spawns diskimages-helper and hdiejectd. The former is started with a -uuid argument per invocation, allowing the mounting of the same DMG multiple times. If the process is stopped, filesystem operations on its contents will likewise hang (with the exception of those already cached by VFS). You can demonstrate this with a simple experiment by mounting a DMG, sending the corresponding diskimages helper a STOP signal, and performing a filesystem intensive operation, such as an ls -lR, witnessing the hang, then sending a CONT. Further inspection in GDB with a breakpoint on mach_msg will enable you to peek at the Mach messages which are passed between the process and the kernel over the I/O Kit interface. This will show a backtrace similar to:Looking at the arguments to DI_kextDriveGetRequest (specifically, $rdx+ 0x20), will reveal a pointer to the data returned from the DMG file by the diskimages-helper. Apple provides extensive support for DMGs, which is only natural given their role in everything, from aspects of OS installation to software distribution. The DMG support is provided by the DiskImages project, which contains both the user mode (hdid, hdiutil) and kernel mode (kexts) required for operation. Lamentably, Apple keeps this as one of the non-open source projects in Darwin.- hdid
- hdiutil
- DiskImages.framework - The private framework lending support to both the above tools, communicating with the KExts (below), as well as the user mode helper processes for mounting images (diskimages-helper and hdiejectd)
- IOHDIXController.kext
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- Optimize compression for type of data: For example, discard blocks of zeros rather than compressing them, or even leaving data uncompressed
- Allow an implementation to selectively decompress chunks, rather than the whole image, which may take a lot of filesystem space and/or memory (especially in kernel-mode).
References:
What Type Of Dmg Is Considered Falling
- DMG2IMG:http://vu1tur.eu.org
- DMG2ISO:at sourceforge.net